This individual assignment is an extension of the individual assignment you completed for Chapter 5. For that assignment you identified a theory, approach, and techniques that resonated with you and that you looked forward to using in the future. Now that you have both the theoretical framework knowledge and basic information about techniques/strategies, I want you to submit a Word document addressing the following:
Select one of the techniques/strategies you identified in your Helping Theory Personal Reflection from Chapter 5 and write a 2 page (double-spaced) research paper on that specific technique/strategy. Provide some basic information about the strategy – with which helping theory does it align, who developed the technique, how is it used in practice, what populations is it best (and worst) aligned with, etc. You will need to use your textbook and at least one reputable external source.
Then in a follow-up paragraph create a plan for how you will be qualified to use that technique in the future. What particular training, formal education, supervision, etc. would be needed?
If you did not complete the Helping Theory Personal Reflection paper, or now are drawn to another theory and set of techniques, then you do not need to use that paper as a guide for helping you formulate this paper.
Personal Theories of Human Behavior
Understanding our personal theoretical base, and the influences that helped us shape our personal theory is key to ensuring our approach with clients is focused on their needs and not our own. Exercise 5.1 on page 122 will help you explore what has influenced your views and assumptions about human behavior. There are not necessarily right and wrong answers, but it is helpful to remain open-minded as that will help you be flexible with your work setting and population. Our authors make a great point highlighting the importance of understanding our personal theories because that will help our words (espoused theory) match our actions (theory in action) when working with clients.
Psychodynamic Theory
The psychodynamic approach includes Freud, Jung, Adler, ego psychology, and object relations and self psychology. Freud is typically the most recognizable name associated with this approach. While his work provided some great contributions to the field, especially from a historical perspective, it is important to note that some of his notions are not well supported today. Becoming conscious of the unconscious is the goal of psychoanalytic therapy. This approach requires extensive training, and it is long-term therapy, so it is more commonly found in private practices than agency settings.
Phenomenological Theory
Existential theory, person-centered/client-centered theory, and gestalt theory are phenomenological approaches. Some of the important names associated with these theories are Viktor Frankl, Irvin Yalom, Carl Rogers, and Fritz Perls. Whereas psychodynamic theories focus on the past, phenomenological theories focus on the present (or the “here and now”). Phenomenology, from a philosophical perspective, focuses on one’s lived experience. With that in mind, the three therapies categorized here are quite fitting. Rogers, and client-centered therapy, is credited with the emphasis on building a warm, empathic therapeutic relationship. A classic Rogerian therapist will actually say that the relationship is their counseling tool – there are no specific “techniques” associated with the approach outside of the relationship. (Though remember, there are skills employed to develop that relationship.) Gestalt therapy, on the other hand, uses many different exercises.
Behavioral Theory
Behavioral theories, such as operant and classical conditioning, were developed based on laboratory work rather than clinical work. However, the nine constructs behind behavioral theory listed on page 137 can still be quite relevant in the clinical world. It can also be helpful to think like a behaviorist when developing outcomes with clients.
Cognitive and Cognitive-Behavioral Theories
Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), reality therapy (RT), and cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT) are all explored in this section. REBT, developed by Ellis, includes the ABCDE theory (see page 140 for details). You can assign clients homework with ABCDE charts and explore the content in sessions, for example. Reality therapy, developed by Glasser, is based on 8 steps (see page 142). Although the steps, as worded, can sound cold, a supportive therapeutic relationship is necessary. CBT approaches are very common today, as many have been studied and are considered evidence-based practices – so insurance companies are supportive of them. There are specific techniques associated with CBT and the therapeutic relationship is important.
See Table 5.1 on page 146 for a great comparison of the theories of helping.
Suggested External References
ADPCA. (2018). The Association for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach. Retrieved from https://www.adpca.org/.
APsaA. (2020). American Psychoanalytic Association. Retrieved from https://apsa.org/.
NACBT. (n.d.) National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Retrieved from http://www.nacbt.org/.
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COGNITIVE AND COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORALTHEORIESCognitive and cognitive-behavioral approaches to helping deal with rationality,the thinking processes, and problem solving. They focus on the helpee’s apprai-sals, attributions, belief systems, and expectancies, as well as the effects of thosecognitive processes on emotions and behaviors. They are instructive, directive,and verbally oriented (as opposed to an approach like Gestalt, which is morenonverbally oriented). Many vocational counseling approaches fall into thisdomain, with an emphasis on testing, synthesis of a variety of collected data,and rational decision making. The major philosophical assumption of cognitive-behavioral theory is that by changing people’s thinking one can change theirbelief system, which in turn changes their behavior and emotions.Three major representatives of cognitive-behavioral theory are rational-emotivebehavior therapy (REBT), reality therapy (RT), and cognitive-behavioraltherapies (CBT).Rational-Emotive Behavior TherapyThe rational-emotive behavioral approach to helping was developed by AlbertEllis in the mid-1950s and is based on his belief that people need to changetheir way of thinking (cognitive restructuring) to correct faulty (irrational)thinking.Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy’s Major Principles of HelpingEllisbelieved that people must take full responsibility for themselves and for theirown fates. He maintained that although people are influenced by biologicaland environmental factors, they are not controlled by them. Rather, theirthought processes mediate between those factors and their emotions. Peopleperceive, think, feel, and behave simultaneously. They can learn to control whatthey feel and do, to a great extent. Ellis further posited that people are born witha tendency to be both rational and irrational, with both self-sabotaging and self-actualizing capacities. They are greatly affected by social conditioning, soalthough there are biological, genetic determinants of rational and irrationalthinking, people primarily teach themselves to become more and more irrationalby incorporating the world’s irrationality into their belief systems.Ellis originally postulated an A-B-C theory: A¼the activating experiencethat the client wrongly believes causes C¼emotional or behavioral conse-quences; B¼the client’s belief system, either rational or irrational, which isthe intervening variable really causing C. More recently he added D and E, soit is now an A-B-C-D-E theory. D¼disputation of the helpee’s irrationalthoughts and beliefs, and E¼the new, more rational emotion or effect. It isB, the client’s belief system, that needs to be restructured. Ellis identified fourevaluative thinking dysfunctions and 12 irrational ideas (listed in Chapter 7)that people keep repeating to themselves that cause faulty thinking.The following example demonstrates faulty thinking:Because it would be highly preferable if I were outstandingly competent, Iabsolutely should and must be. It is awful when I am not, and I am thereforea worthless individual. Because it is highly desirable that others treat meconsiderately and fairly, they absolutely should and must, and they are rottenpeople who deserve to be utterly damned when they do not. And because itis preferable that I experience pleasure rather than pain, the world absolutelyshould arrange this, and life is horrible and I can’t bear it when the worlddoesn’t.Ellis claimed that these are the kinds of things we tell ourselves that make usupset—but we can learn to give ourselves different messages.The major constructs of this theory are the following:1. Problems are caused by irrational beliefs that result in dysfunction.2. People are capable of changing their belief systems by learning how to refutetheir irrational beliefs.3. People are biologically and culturally predisposed to choose, to create, torelate to others, and to enjoy, but they also have inborn propensities to beself-destructive, evasive, selfish, and intolerant.4. Emotional disturbance results from people’s continual irrational thinking,their refusal to accept reality, their insistence on having things the way theythink they should be, and their self-absorption.Rational-emotive behavior therapy is a teaching approach that helps peopleachieve a change in thinking in order to take control of how they experiencetheir emotions, either healthily or unhealthily. By instructing, giving informa-tion, teachingimagery techniques, and assigning homework, the therapisthelps change the helpee’s irrational belief system. Thus, the technique is bothcognitive (teaching) and behavioral (role playing, homework assignments).
PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORYThephenomenologicaltheories of helping focus on the uniqueness of eachperson’s internal perspective, which determines one’s reality. This approachemphasizes the here and now rather than what was or what will be, and howpeople perceive and feel about themselves and their environment rather thantheir adjustment to prevailing cultural norms. It also emphasizes affective ratherthan cognitive or behavioral domains.The three most widely used phenomenological approaches are (1) existentialpsychotherapy, developed by Rollo May,Viktor Frankl, James Bugental, andIrvin Yalom; (2) person-centered (client-centered) theory, developed by CarlRogers; and (3) Gestalt theory advanced by Fritz Perls. Although we will focusmore on the theories of Rogers and Perls, a brief description of the existentialapproach provides a glimpse of the philosophical framework that underlies thesetheories.Existential TheoryExistential theory, a philosophical orientation that stems from the thinking of19th-century European philosophers, was developed into a therapeutic approachby European analysts. They were reacting to the determinism of psychoanalysisand behaviorism. Thus, the existential view of human nature is that it is subjec-tive and ever changing. Meaning is whatever one uniquely experiences. Humanbeings are always in the process of becoming. They have the capacity for aware-ness and the freedom and responsibility to make choices. They are always striv-ing for identity, meaning, and relationship to others.The goal of therapy is to enable clients to recognize the full range of theirchoices and to take responsibility for whichever option they select. Anxiety, aninevitable part of the human condition, emanates from the awareness of death,freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness, and can lead to excessive use of defensemechanisms and lack of authenticity. (Existentialists refer to authenticity as thecongruent, genuine, integrated sense and expression of self.) The existential thera-pist serves as a model and a companion in the client’s search for awareness, respon-sibility, and meaning. The relationship with the client is important. There are nospecific techniques in this approach; rather, existential therapists choose interven-tions from different approaches. Thus, the humanistic nature and philosophy of thehelping relationship are the most critical therapeutic variables. Carl Rogers elabo-rates on the ingredients of this crucial person-to-person relationship.Person-Centered (Client-Centered) TheoryThe person-centered approach, established during the 1930s and 1940 byCarl Rogers, was largely a reaction to the rigidity of the psychoanalytic
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that period.Person-Centered Theory’s Major Principles of HelpingContrary to thepsychoanalytic view, person-centered theoryassumesthathumanbeingsareratio-nal, good, and capable of assuming responsibility for themselves and making thechoices that can lead to independence, self-actualization, and autonomy. Further,it proposes that people are constructive, cooperative, trustworthy, realistic, andsocial. The theory does admit that negative emotions such as hate and anger exist,butitholdsthattheyexistmainlyasresponses to frustrated needs for love, security,and a feeling of belonging, whichare basic human needs. This is a“self”theory,based on a belief that people act in accordance with theirself-conceptand thattheir self-concept is heavily influenced by their experiences with others. It isphenomenological in that it is concerned with the client’sperceptionofhisorherself and situation, not the helper’s or the outside world’s perception of the client.This theory is not concerned with causes of behavior or with changing behavior;rather, it focuses on the individual’s current experiences, feelings, and interactions.This theory emphasizes the self, the environment, and the interaction of thetwo. The aware, self-actualizing organism is constantly experiencing in a phe-nomenal field. The part of that field that one accepts or experiences as separatefrom the rest becomes the self. Since the self, by nature, strives toward integra-tion and actualization of potential, the self-concept becomes increasingly harmo-nious and increasingly consistent with experience, continually accepting andintegrating experience as a part of the self-structure. An individual’s experiences,feelings, and interactions may either be integrated into the self from the environ-ment to become part of the self-concept or remain part of the environment, notyet integrated into the self.The following are the major person-centered constructs:1. Self-concept comprises the individual’s perceptions of himself or herselfbased on interactions with others.2. The phenomenal field is the individual’s reality and consists of his or herself-concept and perceptions of his or her world.3. Individuals behave in whatever ways will enhance their self-concept.4. Problems arise out of incongruencies between the individual’s self-conceptand life experiences that become threatening and cause the individual to usedefenses such as denial or distortion of experiences. These incongruencieslead to disorganization and pain.5. Only by receiving unconditional positive regard (acceptance) from a signifi-cant other can persons be open to their experiences and develop morecongruence between self-concept and behavior.The foundation of person-centered therapy is the creation of an empathic rela-tionship between therapist and client that will encourage the client’s self-explorationand experience of spontaneity, genuineness, and here-and-now feelings. (The focus132CHAPTER FIVECopyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
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on the relationship as the vehicle for change is similar to the object relations and selfpsychology view about the process of change.) The goals of this therapy are self-actualization and self-realization. The counselor must provide the following coreconditions: empathy, which involves understanding the unique experiential worldof the client and conveying that understanding to the client; genuineness in therelationship; and unconditional positive regard. These conditions will enable the cli-ent to work toward the achievement of these goals. This type of therapy requiresthe therapist and the client to participate fully.The person-centered helper uses minimal leads such as“Mm-hmm,”“I see,”and“Yes”(connoting acceptance); reflection (a verbal statement mirroring the cli-ent’s statement); clarification (which explores and develops a client’s statement);summarization (which synthesizes a number of the client’s statements); and con-frontation (a verbal statement that nonjudgmentally challenges a client’s statement).Note that the client does the leading and directing, while the counselor followsthe client’s lead. Thus, there are no“techniques”in this form of helping. Thehelper is effective by being genuine and not playing the role of a“helper.”Carl Rogers’s early work (1940–1950) mainly advocated use of nondirectiveparroting, or paraphrasing, of client statements in a permissive environment. Hesaw the therapist as a clarifier who should remain fairly distant and apart. Overtime, Rogers began to advocate a degree of self-disclosure and sharing of atti-tudes on the part of the counselor, and some interpretation of feelings. Thus,Rogers came to advocate that counselors experience themselves as persons inrelation to clients. Rogerian counselors today are more active and involvedwith their clients than were early Rogerian helpers, and they have added someuse of questions and feedback to their verbal response repertoires.More than any other helping approach, person-centered therapy focuses onthe counseling relationship, which is nondirective and emphasizes the communi-cation of respect, understanding, and acceptance by the helper. The goal is anaffective, warm relationship that reduces clients’anxiety and frees them to expe-rience, express, and explore their feelings. The helper is presented as an equal, acoworker of the helpee, not an expert or authority. The client experiences thehelping relationship as one that allows him or her to take responsibility for deter-mining goals and for taking action toward those goals.Implications of the Person-Centered and Existential Approaches forHelpersThe focus of these theories on the process rather than the content ofverbal behavior is a major contribution to counseling psychology, and has pro-vided the foundation for counselor training programs and research. Over theyears, the focus on the primary significance of the therapeutic relationship hasextended to other models. Because person-centered and existential therapyemphasizes relationships based more on empathic and accurate listening andopenness than on techniques, the counselor’s authentic self or“being”(attitude)is seen as more important than his or her acts or“doing.”Helpers are encour-aged to expand their own awareness at the same time that they are encouraginghelpees to develop their self-awareness.
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In the current climate of managed care and accountability, however, theseapproaches are seen to have several drawbacks, including lack of measurable out-come goals, lack of structure, and unlimited time requirements. Furthermore, thefocus on self-determination and individualism, as well as the inattentiveness tothe impact of sexism, racism, discrimination, and oppression on healthy develop-ment and functioning, could limit their applicability to minority or nondominanthelpees.
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